CBSE Notes Class 7 History Chapter 2-New Kings and Kingdoms

The Manifestation of New Dynasties

There were powerful landowners or military commanders in several parts of the subcontinent in the seventh century. They were frequently acknowledged as their subordinates or samantas by the monarchs of the day.
The Rashtrakutas of the Deccan are one instance. These were initially under the control of the Karnataka Chalukyas. Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta leader, ousted his Chalukyan master in the middle of the ninth century and carried out a ceremony known as hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden belly). It was believed that when this rite was carried out with the aid of Brahmanas, the sacrificer would experience a "rebirth" as a Kshatriya, even though he had never been one before.
In other cases, enterprising family members used their military skills to create kingdoms. For example, the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmana who deserted their traditional professions and took up arms successfully.

Many of these new rulers have taken on imposing names like Tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds), maharaja-adhiraja (great king, lord of kings), and so forth.
Producers, such as farmers, herders, and artisans, who were frequently obliged to give up some of their production, were the source of resources in each of these states.
These have occasionally been referred to as "rent" since a lord claimed to be the land's owner. Merchants also contributed to the income.
These resources were used to finance the king's settlement, and for the construction of temples and forts. They were also used to fight wars, which were in turn expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth in the form of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes.
Officials in charge of collecting income were generally recruited from influential families, and positions were often hereditary. That was true for the military, too. In many cases, the king's relatives performed these functions.

Prashastis include details that may not be literally accurate. However, they describe how the leaders wished to portray themselves, for example, as valiant, successful soldiers. These were written by learned Brahmanas who occasionally helped with governance.
A lengthy Sanskrit poem that tells the history of the Kashmiri monarchs. It was written by a person by the name of Kalhana. He based his narrative on a variety of sources, such as inscriptions, paperwork, eyewitness accounts, and earlier accounts.

One of the most prominent of these leaders is Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan. He ruled from 997 to 1030 and expanded control over parts of Central Asia, Iran, and the northwest part of the sub-continent. He attacked the subcontinent almost annually; his targets were wealthy temples, including Somnath in Gujarat. A large part of the wealth taken by Mahmud served to create a magnificent capital in Ghazni.
Sultan Mahmud was also interested in learning more about the people he conquered and had a scholar named Al-Biruni to write a review of the subcontinent. This Arab work, known under the name of Kitab ul-Hind, remains an important source for historians. He consulted Sanskrit scholars in preparing this narration.
The most famous sovereign of Chahamana was Prithviraj III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghan sovereign named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191 but lost him the following year, in 1192.

The ruling dynasty in the Kaveri Delta was a small family known mostly by the name of Muttaraiyar. They worked for the Kanchipuram Pallava kings. In the middle of the ninth century, Vijayalaya, a member of the ancient family who mostly belonged to the Uraiyur Cholas, conquered the Mutharaiyar delta. He built the Thanjavur city and a temple dedicated to Nishumbhasudini here.
Vijayalaya's successors conquered the surrounding areas, expanding and strengthening the kingdom. This realm included the Pandyan and Pallava lands to its south and north, respectively.
Rajaraja I, believed to be Chola's most powerful leader, became king in 985 and extended control over most of these areas. The administration of the empire was also reorganised. Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I continued his policies and even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka, and countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy for these expeditions

Rajaraja and Rajendra built the magnificent temples in Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, which are marvels of architecture and sculpture.
Chola temples frequently become the focal point of communities that grow up around them. These were hubs for the manufacture of crafts. The leaders and other people also donated land to the temples.
In addition to serving as places of worship, the temples served as the hub of social, cultural, and commercial activity.
Chola's bronze sculptures are among the most exquisite works of art ever created. While depictions of gods predominated, believers were occasionally included as well.

A lot of the Cholas' achievements were made possible by recent advancements in agriculture.
The Kaveri River split up into a number of little channels before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. These canals frequently overflow, depositing rich soil on their banks. The moisture required for agriculture, especially the production of rice, is also supplied by the water in the canals.
Although agriculture was developed earlier in other regions of Tamil Nadu, the region wasn't opened up for extensive farming until the fifth or sixth century. In some places, forests needed to be cleared, while in other places, lands needed to be cleared.
For irrigation purposes, a number of techniques were employed. In a few places, wells have been drilled. In some places, huge reservoirs were constructed to collect

Peasant settlements, known as ur, flourished with the expansion of irrigation agriculture. Groups of these villages formed larger units referred to as Nadu. The Village Council and Nadu have performed several administrative functions, including delivering justice and collecting taxes.
The wealthy peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of Nadu under the direction of the central government of Chola.
The Chola kings granted some wealthy landowners titles such as muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings), araiyar (chief), etc. as markers of respect, and gave them significant government offices at the centre.
Each brahmadeya was cared for by a gathering or sabha of prominent Brahmana landowners. These assemblies functioned extremely effectively. Their decisions were documented in detail in inscriptions, frequently on the stone walls of temples.
The inscriptions from the Uttaramerur in the Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu, provide details on how the sabha was organised. The sabha had separate committees concerned with irrigation work, gardens, temples, etc.